Rapid Methods for Analysis of Edible Oils and Fats by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Analysis using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy techniques on edible fats and oils extracted from palm fruit, groundnut, sesame seed, cottonseed and animal body fats rendered from cow, chicken, lamb and lard were investigated. The studies included development and applications of rapid FTIR techniques to determine some quality parameters such as moisture content in crude palm oil (CPO), soap and hexane residues in refined palm oil and groundnut oil, malondialdehyde (MDA) as a secondary oxidation product in refined palm oil, minor components such as sesamol and gossypol in sesame and cottonseed oils, and aflatoxins in groundnut and groundnut cake. The detection of lard in different mixtures with other animals' body fats such as cow, chicken and lamb was also investigated. Different sample handling techniques were used such as transmission cells of NaCl, BF2, KBr and attenuated total reflectance (ATR) using internal reflectance element (IRE) of ZnSe. Partial Least Square (PLS) and Principle Component Analysis (PCA) statistical methods were used to drive calibrations from FTIR versus actual or chemical values. In this study the frequency of 3700-3072 cm⁻¹ was used to determine moisture content in CPO as it indicates the absorption of compounds containing hydroxyl groups (OH). The frequency at 1675- 1500 cm⁻¹ was used to determine soap residues in refined edible oils. For the determination of hexane residue in oils, the frequency used included all the data from 2935-2817 cm⁻¹, 1 490-1333 cm⁻¹ and 1200-1000 cm⁻¹ for -CH₃ and -CH₂, and in-plane -CH bending. In the determination of MDA as a secondary oxidation product, the correlation and variance spectra were used to select the best regions (2900-2800 and 1800-1600 cm⁻¹) to derive calibration from FTIR versus values obtained by chemical methods with SEC of 1.49. The spectral regions included the data from 3650-3000, 1600- 1450 and 1200-900 cm⁻¹ that were used to determine sesamol in sesame seed oil. The study also included a qualitative and semi quantitative determination of palm and groundnut oils as adulterants in sesame seed oil using the spectral regions from 1504- 1503, 1400- 1397 and 917-914 cm⁻¹. The gossypol was also determined as an important quality factor in cottonseed oil and cakes using the spectral regions from 3600-2520 and 1900-800 cm⁻¹. The study also covered the detection of lard in mixture of body fats of chicken, lamb and cow by using changes in frequency and absorbance of spectral regions 3009-3000, 1418-1417, 1385-1370, 1126- 1085 and 966-967 cm⁻¹. The simple Beer-Lambert law was used to develop equations for the determination of mixtures. Aflatoxins exhibit characteristic absorption bands at wavelengths of 3004-2969 cm⁻¹ for CH₂, aromatic =CH, -C-H, C=C and phenyls, 1744-1720 cm⁻¹ for C=O, 1364-369 cm⁻¹ for methyl adjacent to epoxy ring, 1217-1220 cm⁻¹ for in plane -CH bending of phenyl, 1035-1037 cm⁻¹ for symmetric stretching of =C-O-C or symmetric bending of phenyl, and 900-902 cm⁻¹ which may be for isolated H. In this calibration set the spectral regions that showed the highest correlation between concentration information and spectral response were set to include the data from 3000-2932, 1832-1693, 1400-1329 and 1250-1187 cm⁻¹ for aflatoxins B₁, with standard errors of calibration (SEC) of 1.80 parts per million (ppm). All of the results were in good correlation and of comparable accuracy to the classical wet chemical methods such as the American Oil Chemists Society (AOCS), Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) and International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) methods. This study represents the use of FTIR spectroscopy as a new rapid analytical technique developed for determination of some quality parameters of fats and oils, together with the detection of adulterants and contaminants. The FTIR spectroscopic technique has the potential to replace the timeand effort-consuming chemical methods for fast analysis of fats and oils. This can also eliminate the use of toxic chemicals that are hazardous to the analysts as well as to the environment in the analysis

Rapid methods for analysis of edible oils and fats by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

The objectives of this study were to develop fast, accurate, low cost, sensitive and environmentally friendly analytical methods for selected quality factors and minor components in edible oils and fats and their associated products using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. These analyses include soap residues in the chemically refined vegetable oils, quantifying hexane residues in the solvent extracted vegetable oils, detection of aflatoxins in groundnut and groundnut cake, the determination of malondialdehyde (MDA) as one of the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) in edible oils, the determination of minor components in edible oils such as sesamol and gossypol in sesame seed and cottonseed oils, respectively. In addition, the FTIR techniques were also be used to determine the adulteration of sesame seed oil with other vegetable oils and lard in body fats of chicken, lamb and cow

Halal food analysis: ensuring food and other consumer goods to be authentically halal

Ensuring food and other consumer goods to be authentically halal is paramount for Muslims. Halal should involve approval of all ingredients and all food processing at any stage of the production - the concept of from farm to mouth. Bearing in mind that Muslim population is about 1.6 billion woridwide, many companies are looki at halal concept as a new tool for marketing

Advance Technologies and Problems in Halal & none-Halal Food's Detection

Halal is an Islamic term for permissible, it comes from the holy Quraan and the traditions of our beloved Prophet Mohammad (Peace be upon Him) who showed us the distinction between halal and non-halal. An example from Quraan is “O ye people! Eat of what is on earth, Halal and good; and do not follow the footsteps of the Evil One, for he is to you an avowed enemy.” (Albaqarah; Verse 168). Other examples are “He has only forbidden you dead meat, and blood, and the flesh of swine and that on which any other name hath been invoked besides that of Allah. But if one is forced by necessity, without willful disobedience, nor transgressing due limits, - then is he guiltless. For Allah is oft-forgiving, most merciful.” (Surah 2; Verse 173) and “O ye who believe! Forbid not the good thing which Allah hath made Halal for you, and transgress not. Lo Allah loveth not transgressors. Eat of that which Allah hath bestowed on you as food Halal and Good, and keep your duty to Allah in Whom ye are believers.”(Al-Maidah; Verses 87, 88). There are also so many Hadith by Prophet Mohammad (Peace be upon Him) regarding halal, non-halal and haram. Ensuring food and other consumer products authentically halal is obligatory for every Muslims. Halal should involve approval of all ingredients and all food processing at any stage of the production – from farm to fork concept. Bearing in mind that Muslim population is about two billion worldwide; many companies are looking at halal concept as a new tool for marketing. It is also very important to know that in Islam, food should be Halal and Taiyib (good) as mentioned in many Quraanic verses. Halal food means that it ensures high quality and safety conforming international standards such as food safety according to Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) and of course it should be permitted under the Islamic Shariah law. It is very challenging and increasingly difficult for Muslims to ensure halal status of food in the market due to the diversification of sources acquired globally for food processing and production. This trend has raised concerns among Muslim consumers regarding processed food. Adulteration of value-added food products - involving the replacement of high cost ingredients with lower grade and cheaper substitutes can be very attractive and lucrative for food manufacturers or raw material suppliers. Many fraudulent and deception cases reported worldwide involving adulteration of haram ingredients in halal food (especially porcine-based products)

A new method for determining of gossypol in cottonseed oil by FTIR spectroscop

A new method was developed to determine the gossypol content in cottonseed oil using FTIR spectroscopy with a NaCl transmission cell. The wavelengths used were selected by spiking clean cottonseed oil to gossypol concentrations of 0–5% and noting the regions of maximal absorbance. Transmittance values from the wavelength regions 3600–2520 and 1900–800 cm−1 and a partial least squares (PLS) method were used to derive FTIR spectroscopic calibration models for crude cottonseed, semirefined cottonseed, and gossypol-spiked cottonseed oils. The coefficients of determination (R2) for the models were computed by comparing the results from the FTIR spectroscopy against those obtained by AOCS method Ba 8-78. The R2 were 0.9511, 0.9116, and 0.9363 for crude cottonseed, semirefined cottonseed, and gossypol-spiked cottonseed oils, respectively. The SE of calibration were 0.042, 0.009, and 0.060, respectively. The calibration models were cross-validated within the same set of oil samples. The SD of the difference for repeatability and accuracy of the FTIR method were better than those for the chemical method. With its speed (ca. 2 min) and ease of data manipulation, FTIR spectroscopy is a useful alternative to standard wet chemical methods for rapid and routine determination of gossypol in process and/or quality control for cottonseed oil

Rapid determinations of moisture content in crude palm oil by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

A simple, rapid, and direct Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopic method was developed for the determination of moisture content of crude palm oil (CPO). The calibration set was prepared by adding double-distilled water to dried CPO in ratios (w/w) between 0 and 13% moisture. A partial least squares (PLS) regression technique was employed to construct a calibration model followed by cross-validation step. The accuracy of this method was comparable to the accuracy of the American Oil Chemists’ Society’s vacuum oven method, which is used for determination of moisture and volatile matter, with mean difference (MDa) of 0.0105, a coefficient of determination (R2) and a standard error of calibration (SEC) of 0.9781 and 0.91, respectively. It is also comparable to the accuracy of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry’s distillation method with MDa, R2, and SEC of 0.0695, 0.9701, and 0.65, respectively. The study showed that midband FTIR spectroscopy combined with the PLS regression calibration technique is rapid and accurate for determination of moisture content of CPO samples with a total analysis time of less than 2 min and less than 2 mL of sample

The contribution of Banu Musa brothers in the self changing fountain

This chapter examines how Banu Musa, innovate and create system that is notthere at that time and documented until it becomes one of the main reference in the world at present

Detection of lard mixed with body fats of chicken, lamb and cow by fourier transform infrared spectroscopy

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy provides a simple and rapid means of detecting lard blended with chicken, lamb, and cow body fats. The spectral bands associated with chicken, lamb, and cow body fats and their lard blends were recorded, interpreted, and identified. Qualitative differences between the spectra are proposed as a basis for differentiating between the pure animal fats and their blends. A semiquantitative approach is proposed to measure the percent of lard in blends with lamb body fat (LBF) on the basis of the frequency shift of the band in the region 3009–3000 cm−1, using the equation y = 0.1616x + 3002.10. The coefficient of determination (R2) was 0.9457 with a standard error (SE) of 1.23. The percentage of lard in lard/LBF blends was also correlated to the absorbance at 1417.89 and 966.39 cm−1 by the equations y = 0.0061x + 0.1404 (R2 = 0.9388, SE = 0.018) and y = 0.004x + 0.1117 (R2 = 0.9715, SE = 0.009), respectively. For the qualitative determination of lard blended with chicken body fat (CF), the FTIR spectral bands in the frequency ranges of 3008–3000, 1418–1417, 1385–1370, and 1126–1085 cm−1 were employed. Semiquantitative determination by measurement of the absorbance at 3005.6 cm−1 is proposed, using the equation y = 0.0071x + 0.1301 (R2 = 0.983, SE = 0.012). The percentage of lard in lard/GF blends was also correlated to the absorbance at 1417.85 cm−1 (y = 0.0053x + 0.0821, with R2 = 0.9233, SE = 0.019) and at 1377.58 cm−1 (y = 0.0069x + 0.1327, with R2 = 0.9426, SE = 0.022). For blends of lard with cow body fat (CBF) bands in the range 3008–3006 cm−1 and at 1417.8 and 966 cm−1 were used for qualitative detection. The equation y = –0.005x + 0.3188 with R2 = 0.9831 and SE = 0.0086 was obtained for semiquantitative determination at 966.22 cm−1

Contributions of al-Razi on alchemy in terms of metal and substance

Ancient Greek philosophers make a great contribution to the history of chemistry and the knowledge has been passed into the domain of the Islamic scholars. During that time, the Greeks did not yet make any distinction between alchemy and any ofthe other natural sciences, instead merging it together with their philosophical and religious beliefs. Nevertheless, the basic knowledge of chemistry which surface by Aristotle (the four elements theory) is preserved by the Islamic scholar and also added their own observation to it. The Islamic scholars optimistically refined Ancient Greek alchemy and the foundation of the first separation of chemistry as a separate disciple. Their alchemy is based on Aristotelian idea of four elements and endeavor to integrate them with their beliefs in Allah and their studies into psychology, medicine and physic

Application of chromatographic and infra-red spectroscopic techniques for detection of adulterations in food lipids: a review

Adulteration of oils and fats is an important commercial issue, which needs intervention from regulatory agencies. Tremendous amount of research have been carried out during the past several decades to address this, starting from classical methods to more sophisticated instrumental techniques. Instrumental techniques based on chromatography and infrared spectroscopy have received particular attention from researchers worldwide as they fast and efficient. Majority of the past studies suggested the use of assays based on fatty acids, triacylglycerol components, minor constituents, and spectral characteristics as they are really useful to determine the adulteration of food lipids. A discussion on the specificity and sensitivity of these assays in solving adulteration issues of oils and fats is timely. Hence, the purpose of this review is to present an update of the current literature in this topic and provide some directions for future research